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〃Often； though； it belongs to the invisible world； and only reveals itself by
the malignity of its attacks： it is a god； a spirit； the soul of a dead man； that
has cunningly entered a living person； or that throws itself upon him with
irresistible violence。 Once in possession of the body； the evil influence
breaks the bones； sucks out the marrow； drinks the blood； gnaws the
intestines and the heart and devours the flesh。 The invalid perishes
according to the progress of this destructive work； and death speedily
ensues； unless the evil genius can be driven out of it before it has
committed irreparable damage。 Whoever treats a sick person has therefore
two equally important duties to perform。 He must first discover the nature
of the spirit in possession； and； if necessary； its name； and then attack it；
drive it out； or even destroy it。 He can only succeed by powerful magic； so
he must be an expert in reciting incantations； and skilful in making
amulets。 He must then use medicine ＇drugs and diet＇ to contend with the
disorders which the presence of the strange being has produced in the
body。〃＇6＇
＇5＇ Maspero： Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria； London； 1891； p。 119。
＇6＇ Maspero： Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria； London； 1891； p。 118。
＇7＇ W。 Wreszinski： Die Medizin der alten Aegypter； Leipzig； J。 C。
Hinrichs； 1909…1912。
In this way it came about that diseases were believed to be due to
hostile spirits； or caused by the anger of a god； so that medicines； no
matter how powerful； could only be expected to assuage the pain； but
magic alone； incantations； spells and prayers； could remove the disease。
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Experience brought much of the wisdom we call empirical； and the
records； extending for thousands of years； show that the Egyptians
employed emetics； purgatives； enemata； diuretics； diaphoretics and even
bleeding。 They had a rich pharmacopoeia derived from the animal；
vegetable and mineral kingdoms。 In the later periods； specialism reached a
remarkable development； and Herodotus remarks that the country was full
of physicians；〃One treats only the diseases of the eye； another those of
the head； the teeth； the abdomen； or the internal organs。〃
Our knowledge of Egyptian medicine is derived largely from the
remarkable papyri dealing specially with this subject。 Of these； six or
seven are of the first importance。 The most famous is that discovered by
Ebers； dating from about 1500 B。C。 A superb document； one of the great
treasures of the Leipzig Library； it is 20。23 metres long and 30 centimetres
high and in a state of wonderful preservation。 Others are the Kahun； Berlin；
Hearst and British Museum papyri。 All these have now been published
the last three quite recently； edited by Wreszinski。＇7＇ I show here a
reproduction from which an idea may be had of these remarkable
documents。 They are motley collections； filled with incantations； charms；
magical formulae； symbols； prayers and prescriptions for all sorts of
ailments。 One is impressed by the richness of the pharmacopoeia； and the
high development which the art of pharmacy must have attained。 There
were gargles； salves； snuffs； inhalations； suppositories； fumigations；
enemata； poultices and plasters； and they knew the use of opium； hemlock；
the copper salts； squills and castor oil。 Surgery was not very highly
developed； but the knife and actual cautery were freely used。 Ophthalmic
surgery was practiced by specialists； and there are many prescriptions in
the papyri for ophthalmia。
One department of Egyptian medicine reached a high stage of
development； vis。； hygiene。 Cleanliness of the dwellings； of the cities and
of the person was regulated by law； and the priests set a splendid example
in their frequent ablutions； shaving of the entire body； and the spotless
cleanliness of their clothing。 As Diodorus remarks； so evenly ordered was
their whole manner of life that it was as if arranged by a learned physician
rather than by a lawgiver。
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Two world…wide modes of practice found their earliest illustration in
ancient Egypt。 Magic； the first of these； represented the attitude of
primitive man to nature； and really was his religion。 He had no idea of
immutable laws； but regarded the world about him as changeable and
fickle like himself； and 〃to make life go as he wished； he must be able to
please and propitiate or to coerce these forces outside himself。〃＇8＇
＇8＇ L。 Thorndike： The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History of
Europe； New York； 1905； p。 29。
The point of interest to us is that in the Pyramid Texts〃the oldest
chapter in human thinking preserved to us； the remotest reach in the
intellectual history of man which we are now able to discern〃＇9＇ one of
their six…fold contents relates to the practice of magic。 A deep belief
existed as to its efficacy； particularly in guiding the dead； who were said to
be glorious by reason of mouths equipped with the charms； prayers and
ritual of the Pyramid Texts； armed with which alone could the soul escape
the innumerable dangers and ordeals of the passage through another world。
Man has never lost his belief in the efficacy of magic； in the widest sense
of the term。 Only a very few of the most intellectual nations have escaped
from its shackles。 Nobody else has so clearly expressed the origins and
relations of magic as Pliny in his 〃Natural History。〃＇10＇ 〃Now； if a man
consider the thing well； no marvaile it is that it hath continued thus in so
great request and authoritie； for it is the onely Science which seemeth to
comprise in itselfe three possessions besides； which have the command
and rule of mans mind above any other whatsoever。 For to begin withall；
no man doubteth but that Magicke tooke root first； and proceeded from
Physicke； under the presence of maintaining health； curing； and preventing
diseases： things plausible to the world； crept and insinuated farther into the
heart of man； with a deepe conceit of some high and divine matter therein
more than ordinarie； and in comparison whereof； all other Physicke was
but basely accounted。 And having thus made way and entrance； the better
to fortifie it selfe； and to give a goodly colour and lustre to those fair and
flattering promises of things； which our nature is most given to hearken
after； on goeth the habite also and cloake of religion： a point； I may tell
you； that even in these daies holdeth captivate the spirit of man； and
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
draweth away with it a greater part of the world； and nothing so much。 But
not content with this successe and good proceeding； to gather more
strength and win a greater name； shee entermingled with medicinable
receipts and religious ceremonies； the skill of Astrologie and arts
Mathematicall； presuming upon this； That all men by nature are very
curious and desirous to know their future fortunes； and what shall betide
them hereafter； persuading themselves； that all such foreknowledge
dependeth upon the course and influence of the starres； which give the
truest and most certain light of things to come。 Being thus wholly
possessed of men； and having their senses and understanding by this
meanes fast ynough bound with three sure chains； no marvell if this art
grew in processe of time to such an head； that it was and is at this day
reputed by most nations of the earth for the parago