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cities。 So far as science is concerned； the thirteenth century was an aurora
followed by a long period of darkness； but the fifteenth was a true dawn
that brightened more and more unto the perfect day。 Always a reflex of its
period； medicine joined heartily though slowly in the revolt against
mediaevalism。 How slowly I did not appreciate until recently。 Studying the
earliest printed medical works to catch the point of view of the men who
were in the thick of the movement up to 1480 which may be taken to
include the first quarter of a century of printing one gets a startling
record。 The mediaeval mind still dominates： of the sixty…seven authors of
one hundred and eighty…two editions of early medical books； twenty…three
were men of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries； thirty men of the
fifteenth century； eight wrote in Arabic； several were of the School of
Salernum； and only six were of classical antiquity； viz。； Pliny （first 1469）；
Hippocrates （1473） ＇Hain ＇*＇7247＇； Galen （1475） ＇Hain 7237＇； Aristotle
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（1476）； Celsus （1478）； and Dioscorides （1478）。＇**＇
＇*＇ This asterisk is used by Hain to indicate that he had seen a copy。
Ed。
＇**＇ Data added to a manuscript taken from the author's summary on
〃Printed Medical Books to 1480〃 in Transactions of the Bibliographical
Society； London； 1916； XIII； 5…8； revised from its 〃News…Sheet〃 （February；
1914）。 〃Of neither Hippocrates nor Galen is there an early edition； but in
1473 at Pavia appeared an exposition of the Aphorisms of Hippoerates；
and in 1475 at Padua an edition of the Tegni or Notes of Galen。〃 Ibid。； p。 6。
Osler's unfinished Illustrated Monograph on this subject is now being
printed for the Society of which he was President。Ed。
The medical profession gradually caught the new spirit。 It has been
well said that Greece arose from the dead with the New Testament in the
one hand and Aristotle in the other。 There was awakened a perfect passion
for the old Greek writers； and with it a study of the original sources； which
had now become available in many manuscripts。 Gradually Hippocrates
and Galen came to their own again。 Almost every professor of medicine
became a student of the MSS。 of Aristotle and of the Greek physicians；
and before 1530 the presses had poured out a stream of editions。 A wave
of enthusiasm swept over the profession； and the best energies of its best
minds were devoted to a study of the Fathers。 Galen became the idol of the
schools。 A strong revulsion of feeling arose against the Arabians； and
Avicenna； the Prince； who had been clothed with an authority only a little
less than divine； became anathema。 Under the leadership of the
Montpellier School； the Arabians made a strong fight； but it was a losing
battle all along the line。 This group of medical humanistsmen who were
devoted to the study of the old humanities； as Latin and Greek were
called has had a great and beneficial influence upon the profession。 They
were for the most part cultivated gentlemen with a triple interestliterature；
medicine and natural history。 How important is the part they played may
be gathered from a glance at the 〃Lives〃 given by Bayle in his 〃Biographic
Medicale〃 （Paris； 1855） between the years 1500 and 1575。 More than one
half of them had translated or edited works of Hippocrates or Galen； many
of them had made important contributions to general literature； and a large
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proportion of them were naturalists： Leonicenus； Linacre； Champier；
Fernel； Fracastorius； Gonthier； Caius； J。 Sylvius； Brasavola； Fuchsius；
Matthiolus； Conrad Gesner； to mention only those I know best； form a
great group。 Linacre edited Greek works for Aldus； translated works of
Galen； taught Greek at Oxford； wrote Latin grammars and founded the
Royal College of Physicians。＇*＇ Caius was a keen Greek scholar； an ardent
student of natural history； and his name is enshrined as co…founder of one
of the most important of the Cambridge colleges。 Gonthier； Fernel； Fuchs
and Mattioli were great scholars and greater physicians。 Champier； one of
the most remarkable of the group； was the founder of the Hotel Dieu at
Lyons； and author of books of a characteristic Renaissance type and of
singular bibliographical interest。 In many ways greatest of all was Conrad
Gesner； whose mors inopinata at forty…nine； bravely fighting the plague； is
so touchingly and tenderly mourned by his friend Caius。＇2＇ Physician；
botanist； mineralogist； geologist； chemist； the first great modern
bibliographer； he is the very embodiment of the spirit of the age。＇2a＇ On
the flyleaf of my copy of the 〃Bibliotheca Universalis〃 （1545）； is written a
fine tribute to his memory。 I do not know by whom it is； but I do know
from my reading that it is true：
＇*＇ Cf。 Osler： Thomas Linacre； Cambridge University Press； 1908。
Ed。
＇2＇ Joannis Caii Britanni de libris suis； etc。； 1570。
＇2a＇ See J。 C。 Bay： Papers Bibliog。 Soc。 of America； 1916； X； No。 2；
53…86。
〃Conrad Gesner； who kept open house there for all learned men who
came into his neighborhood。 Gesner was not only the best naturalist
among the scholars of his day； but of all men of that century he was the
pattern man of letters。 He was faultless in private life； assiduous in study；
diligent in maintaining correspondence and good…will with learned men in
all countries； hospitablethough his means were small to every scholar
that came into Zurich。 Prompt to serve all； he was an editor of other men's
volumes； a writer of prefaces for friends； a suggestor to young writers of
books on which they might engage themselves； and a great helper to them
in the progress of their work。 But still； while finding time for services to
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other men； he could produce as much out of his own study as though he
had no part in the life beyond its walls。〃
A large majority of these early naturalists and botanists were
physicians。＇3＇ The Greek art of observation was revived in a study of the
scientific writings of Aristotle； Theophrastus and Dioscorides and in
medicine； of Hippocrates and of Galen； all in the Greek originals。 That
progress was at first slow was due in part to the fact that the leaders were
too busy scraping the Arabian tarnish from the pure gold of Greek
medicine and correcting the anatomical mistakes of Galen to bother much
about his physiology or pathology。 Here and there among the great
anatomists of the period we read of an experiment； but it was the art of
observation； the art of Hippocrates； not the science of Galen； not the
carefully devised experiment to determine function； that characterized
their work。 There was indeed every reason why men should have been
content with the physiology and pathology of that day； as； from a
theoretical standpoint； it was excellent。 The doctrine of the four humors
and of the natural； animal and vital spirits afforded a ready explanation for
the symptoms of all diseases； and the practice of the day was admirably
adapted to the theories。 There was no thought of； no desire for； change。
But the revival of learning awakened in men at first a suspicion and at last
a conviction that the ancients had left something which could be reached
by independent research； and gradually the paralytic…like torpor passed
away。
＇3＇ Miall： The Early Naturalists； London； 1912。
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did three things in medicine…
… shattered authority； laid the foundation of an accurate knowledge of the
structure of the human body and demonstrated how its functions should be
studied intelligentlywith which advances； as illustrating this period； may
be associated the names of Paracelsus； Vesalius and Harvey。
PARACELSUS
PARAC