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manufactured products against agricultural products and raw
materials。 This maxim was then； and has remained since； an English
State secret； it was never again openly professed； but was all the
more persistently followed。 If； however； England since William
Pitt's time had really cast away the protective system as a useless
crutch； she would now occupy a much higher position than she does；
and she would have got much nearer to her object； which is to
monopolise the manufacturing power of the whole world。 The
favourable moment for attaining this object was clearly just after
the restoration of the general peace。 Hatred of Napoleon's
Continental system had secured a reception among all nations of the
Continent of the doctrines of the cosmopolitical theory。 Russia；
the entire North of Europe； Germany； the Spanish peninsula； and the
United States of North America would have considered themselves
fortunate in exchanging their agricultural produce and raw
materials for English manufactured goods。 France herself would
perhaps have found it possible； in consideration of some decided
concessions in respect of her wine and silk manufactures； to depart
from her prohibitive system。
Then also the time had arrived when； as Priestley said of the
English navigation laws； it would be just as wise to repeal the
English protective system as it had formerly been to introduce it。
The result of such a policy would have been that all the
surplus raw materials and agricultural produce from the two
hemispheres would have flowed over to England； and all the world
would have clothed themselves with English fabrics。 All would have
tended to increase the wealth and the power of England。 Under such
circumstances the Americans or the Russians would hardly have taken
it into their heads in the course of the present century to
introduce a protective system； or the Germans to establish a
customs union。 People would have come to the determination with
difficulty to sacrifice the advantages of the present moment to the
hopes of a distant future。
But Providence has taken care that trees should not grow quite
up to the sky。 Lord Castlereagh gave over the commercial policy of
England into the hands of the landed aristocracy； and these killed
the hen which had laid the golden eggs。 Had they permitted the
English manufactures to monopolise the markets of all nations；
Great Britain would have occupied the position in respect to the
world which a manufacturing town does in respect to the open
country； the whole territory of the island of England would have
been covered with houses and manufactories； or devoted to pleasure
gardens； vegetable gardens； and orchards； to the production of milk
and of meat； or of the cultivation of market produce； and generally
to such cultivation as only can be carried on in the neighbourhood
of great cities。 The production of these things would have become
much more lucrative for English agriculture than the production of
corn； and consequently after a time the English landed aristocracy
would have obtained much higher rents than by the exclusion of
foreign grain from the home market。 Only； the landed aristocracy
having only their present interests in view； preferred by means of
the corn laws to maintain their rents at the high rate to which
they had been raised by the involuntary exclusion of foreign raw
materials and grain from the English market which had been
occasioned by the war； and thus they compelled the nations of the
Continent to seek to promote their own welfare by another method
than by the free exchange of agricultural produce for English
manufactures； viz。 By the method of establishing a manufacturing
power of their own。 The English restrictive laws thus operated
quite in the same way as Napoleon's Continental system had done；
only their operation was somewhat slower。
When Canning and Huskisson came into office； the landed
aristocracy had already tasted too much of the forbidden fruit for
it to be possible to induce them by reasons of common sense to
renounce what they had enjoyed。 These statesmen found themselves in
the difficult position of solving an impossible problem a
position in which the English ministry still finds itself。 They had
at one and the same time to convince the Continental nations of the
advantages of free trade； and also maintain the restrictions on the
import of foreign agricultural produce for the benefit of the
English landed aristocracy。 Hence it was impossible that their
system could be developed in such a manner that justice could be
done to the hopes of the advocates of free trade on both
continents。 With all their liberality with philanthropical and
cosmopolitical phrases which they uttered in general discussions
respecting the commercial systems of England and other countries；
they nevertheless did not think it inconsistent； whenever the
question arose of the alteration of any particular English duties；
to base their arguments on the principle of protection。
Huskisson certainly reduced the duties on several articles； but
he never omitted to take care that at that lower scale of duty the
home manufactories were still sufficiently protected。 He thus
followed pretty much the rules of the Dutch water administration。
Wherever the water on the outside rises high； these wise
authorities erect high dykes； wherever it rises less； they only
build lower dykes。 After such a fashion the reform of the English
commercial policy which was announced with so much pomp reduced
itself to a piece of mere politico…economical jugglery。 Some
persons have adduced the lowering of the English duty on silk goods
as a piece of English liberality； without duly considering that
England by that means only sought to discourage contraband trade in
these articles to the benefit of her finances and without injury to
her own silk manufactories； which object it has also by that means
perfectly attained。 But if a protective duty of 50 to 70 per cent
（which at this day foreign silk manufacturers have to pay in
England； including the extra duty（3*）） is to be accepted as a proof
of liberality most nations may claim that they have rather preceded
the English in that respect than followed them。
As the demonstrations of Canning and Huskisson were specially
intended to produce an effect in France and North America； it will
not be uninteresting to call to mind in what way it was that they
suffered shipwreck in both countries。 Just as formerly in the year
1786； so also on this occasion； the English received great support
from the theorists； and the liberal party in France； carried away
by the grand idea of universal freedom of trade and by Say's
superficial arguments； and from feelings of opposition towards a
detested Government and supported by the maritime towns； the wine
growers； and the silk manufacturers； the liberal party clamorously
demanded； as they had done in the year 1786； extension of the trade
with England as the one true method of promoting the national
welfare。
For whatever faults people may lay to the charge of the
Restoration； it rendered an undeniable service to France； a service
which posterity will not dispute； it did not allow itself to be
misled into a false step as respects commercial policy either by
the stratagems of the English or by the outcry of the liberals。 Mr
Canning laid this business so much to heart that he himself made a
journey to Paris in order to convince Monsieur Vill鑜e of the
excellence of his measures； and to induce him to imitate them。 M。
Vill鑜e was； however； much too practical not to see completely
through this stratagem； he is said to have replied to Mr Canning；
'If England in the far advanced position of her industry permits
greater foreign competition than formerly； that policy corresponds
to England's own well…understood interests。 But at this time it is
to the well…understood interests of France that she should secure
to her manufactories which have not as yet attained perfect
development； that protection which is at present indispensable to
them for that object。 But whenever the moment shall have arrived
when French manufacturing industry can be better promoted by
permitting foreign competition than by restricting it； then he （M。
Vill鑜e） would not delay to derive advantage from following the
example of Mr Canning。'
Annoyed by this conclusive answer； Canning bo