a history of science-1-第6部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


een　the　prehistoric　and　the　historic　stage　of　culture　to　which　we　have　all　along　referred。　The　essential　structure　of　that　bridge；　let　it　now　be　clearly　understood；　consisted　of　a　single　element。　That　element　is　the　capacity　to　make　written　records：　a　knowledge　of　the　art　of　writing。　Clearly　understood；　it　is　this　element　of　knowledge　that　forms　the　line　bounding　the　historical　period。　Numberless　mementos　are　in　existence　that　tell　of　the　intellectual　activities　of　prehistoric　man；　such　mementos　as　flint　implements；　pieces　of　pottery；　and　fragments　of　bone；　inscribed　with　pictures　that　may　fairly　be　spoken　of　as　works　of　art；　but　so　long　as　no　written　word　accompanies　these　records；　so　long　as　no　name　of　king　or　scribe　comes　down　to　us；　we　feel　that　these　records　belong　to　the　domain　of　archaeology　rather　than　to　that　of　history。　Yet　it　must　be　understood　all　along　that　these　two　domains　shade　one　into　the　other　and；　it　has　already　been　urged；　that　the　distinction　between　them　is　one　that　pertains　rather　to　modern　scholarship　than　to　the　development　of　civilization　itself。　Bearing　this　distinction　still　in　mind；　and　recalling　that　the　historical　period；　which　is　to　be　the　field　of　our　observation　throughout　the　rest　of　our　studies；　extends　for　Egypt　well　back　into　the　fifth　millennium　B。C。；　let　us　briefly　review　the　practical　phases　of　that　civilization　to　which　the　Egyptian　had　attained　before　the　beginning　of　the　dynastic　period。　Since　theoretical　science　is　everywhere　linked　with　the　mechanical　arts；　this　survey　will　give　us　a　clear　comprehension　of　the　field　that　lies　open　for　the　progress　of　science　in　the　long　stages　of　historical　time　upon　which　we　are　just　entering。　We　may　pass　over　such　rudimentary　advances　in　the　direction　of　civilization　as　are　implied　in　the　use　of　articulate　language；　the　application　of　fire　to　the　uses　of　man；　and　the　systematic　making　of　dwellings　of　one　sort　or　another；　since　all　of　these　are　stages　of　progress　that　were　reached　very　early　in　the　prehistoric　period。　What　more　directly　concerns　us　is　to　note　that　a　really　high　stage　of　mechanical　development　had　been　reached　before　the　dawnings　of　Egyptian　history　proper。　All　manner　of　household　utensils　were　employed；　the　potter's　wheel　aided　in　the　construction　of　a　great　variety　of　earthen　vessels；　weaving　had　become　a　fine　art；　and　weapons　of　bronze；　including　axes；　spears；　knives；　and　arrow…heads；　were　in　constant　use。　Animals　had　long　been　domesticated；　in　particular　the　dog；　the　cat；　and　the　ox；　the　horse　was　introduced　later　from　the　East。　The　practical　arts　of　agriculture　were　practised　almost　as　they　are　at　the　present　day　in　Egypt；　there　being；　of　course；　the　same　dependence　then　as　now　upon　the　inundations　of　the　Nile。　As　to　government；　the　Egyptian　of　the　first　dynasty　regarded　his　king　as　a　demi…god　to　be　actually　deified　after　his　death；　and　this　point　of　view　was　not　changed　throughout　the　stages　of　later　Egyptian　history。　In　point　of　art；　marvellous　advances　upon　the　skill　of　the　prehistoric　man　had　been　made；　probably　in　part　under　Asiatic　influences；　and　that　unique　style　of　stilted　yet　expressive　drawing　had　come　into　vogue；　which　was　to　be　remembered　in　after　times　as　typically　Egyptian。　More　important　than　all　else；　our　Egyptian　of　the　earliest　historical　period　was　in　possession　of　the　art　of　writing。　He　had　begun　to　make　those　specific　records　which　were　impossible　to　the　man　of　the　Stone　Age；　and　thus　he　had　entered　fully　upon　the　way　of　historical　progress　which；　as　already　pointed　out；　has　its　very　foundation　in　written　records。　From　now　on　the　deeds　of　individual　kings　could　find　specific　record。　It　began　to　be　possible　to　fix　the　chronology　of　remote　events　with　some　accuracy；　and　with　this　same　fixing　of　chronologies　came　the　advent　of　true　history。　The　period　which　precedes　what　is　usually　spoken　of　as　the　first　dynasty　in　Egypt　is　one　into　which　the　present…day　searcher　is　still　able　to　see　but　darkly。　The　evidence　seems　to　suggest　than　an　invasion　of　relatively　cultured　people　from　the　East　overthrew；　and　in　time　supplanted；　the　Neolithic　civilization　of　the　Nile　Valley。　It　is　impossible　to　date　this　invasion　accurately；　but　it　cannot　well　have　been　later　than　the　year　5000　B。C。；　and　it　may　have　been　a　great　many　centuries　earlier　than　this。　Be　the　exact　dates　what　they　may；　we　find　the　Egyptian　of　the　fifth　millennium　B。C。　in　full　possession　of　a　highly　organized　civilization。　All　subsequent　ages　have　marvelled　at　the　pyramids；　some　of　which　date　from　about　the　year　4000　B。C。；　though　we　may　note　in　passing　that　these　dates　must　not　be　taken　too　literally。　The　chronology　of　ancient　Egypt　cannot　as　yet　be　fixed　with　exact　accuracy；　but　the　disagreements　between　the　various　students　of　the　subject　need　give　us　little　concern。　For　our　present　purpose　it　does　not　in　the　least　matter　whether　the　pyramids　were　built　three　thousand　or　four　thousand　years　before　the　beginning　of　our　era。　It　suffices　that　they　date　back　to　a　period　long　antecedent　to　the　beginnings　of　civilization　in　Western　Europe。　They　prove　that　the　Egyptian　of　that　early　day　had　attained　a　knowledge　of　practical　mechanics　which；　even　from　the　twentieth…century　point　of　view；　is　not　to　be　spoken　of　lightly。　It　has　sometimes　been　suggested　that　these　mighty　pyramids；　built　as　they　are　of　great　blocks　of　stone；　speak　for　an　almost　miraculous　knowledge　on　the　part　of　their　builders；　but　a　saner　view　of　the　conditions　gives　no　warrant　for　this　thought。　Diodoras；　the　Sicilian；　in　his　famous　World's　History；　written　about　the　beginning　of　our　era；　explains　the　building　of　the　pyramids　by　suggesting　that　great　quantities　of　earth　were　piled　against　the　side　of　the　rising　structure　to　form　an　inclined　plane　up　which　the　blocks　of　stone　were　dragged。　He　gives　us　certain　figures；　based；　doubtless；　on　reports　made　to　him　by　Egyptian　priests；　who　in　turn　drew　upon　the　traditions　of　their　country；　perhaps　even　upon　written　records　no　longer　preserved。　He　says　that　one　hundred　and　twenty　thousand　men　were　employed　in　the　construction　of　the　largest　pyramid；　and　that；　notwithstanding　the　size　of　this　host　of　workers；　the　task　occupied　twenty　years。　We　must　not　place　too　much　dependence　upon　such　figures　as　these；　for　the　ancient　historians　are　notoriously　given　to　exaggeration　in　recording　numbers；　yet　we　need　not　doubt　that　the　report　given　by　Diodorus　is　substantially　accurate　in　its　main　outlines　as　to　the　method　through　which　the　pyramids　were　constructed。　A　host　of　men　putting　their　added　weight　and　strength　to　the　task；　with　the　aid　of　ropes；　pulleys；　rollers；　and　levers；　and　utilizing　the　principle　of　the　inclined　plane；　could　undoubtedly　move　and　elevate　and　place　in　position　the　largest　blocks　that　enter　into　the　pyramids　orwhat　seems　even　more　wonderfulthe　most　gigantic　obelisks；　without　the　aid　of　any　other　kind　of　mechanism　or　of　any　more　occult　power。　The　same　hands　could；　as　Diodorus　suggests；　remove　all　trace　of　the　debris　of　construction　and　leave　the　pyramids　and　obelisks　standing　in　weird　isolation；　as　if　sprung　into　being　through　a　miracle。

ASTRONOMICAL　SCIENCE　It　has　been　necessary　to　bear　in　mind　these　phases　of　practical　civilization　because　much　that　we　know　of　the　purely　scientific　attainments　of　the　Egyptians　is　based　upon　modern　observation　of　their　pyramids　and　temples。　It　was　early　observed；　for　example；　that　the　pyramids　are　obviously　oriented　as　regards　the　direction　in　which　they　face；　in　strict　accordance　with　some　astronomical　principle。　Early　in　the　nineteenth　century　the　Frenchman　Biot　made　interesting　studies　in　regard　to　this　subject；　and　a　hundred　years　later；　in　our　own　time；　Sir　Joseph　Norman　Lockyer；　following　up　the　work　of　various　intermediary　observers；　has　given　the　subject　much　attention；　making　it　the　central　theme　of　his　work　on　The　Dawn　of　Astronomy。＇1＇　Lockyer's　researches　make　it　clear　that　in　the　main　the　temples　of　Egypt　were　oriented　with　reference　to　the　point　at　which　the　sun　rises　on　the　day　of　the　summer　solstice。　The　time　of　the　solstice　had　peculiar　interest　for　the　Egyptians；　because　it　corresponded　rather　closely　with　the　time　of　the　rising　of　the　Nile。　The　floods　of　that　river　appear　with　very　great　regularity；　the　on…rushing　tide　reaches　the　region　of　Heliopolis　and　Memphis　almost　precisely　on　the　day　of　the　summer　solstice。　The　time　varies　at　different　stages　of　the　river's　course；　but　as　the　civilization　of　the　early　dynasties　centred　at　Memphis；　observations　made　at　this　place　had　widest　vogue。　Considering　the　all…essential　character　of　the　Nile　floods…without　which　civilization　would　be　impossible　in　Egyptit　is　not　strange　that　the　time　of　their　appearance　should　be　taken　as　marking　the　beginning　of　a　new　year。　The　fact　that　their　coming　coincides　with　the　solstice　makes　such　a　division　of　the　calendar　perfectly　natural。　In　point　of　fact；　from　the　earliest　periods　of　which　records　have　come　down　to　us；　the　new　year　of　the　Egyptians　dates　from　the　summer　solstice。　It　is　certain　that　from　the　earliest　historical　periods　the　Egyptians　were　aware　of　the　approximate　length　of　the　year。　It　would　be　strange　were　it　otherwise；　considering　the　ease　with　which　a　record　of　days　could　be　kept　from　Nile　flood　to　Nile　floo