按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
the karma is modifiable by self…discipline； if its coarser desires；
one after another； can be extinguished； the ultimate ＇64＇ fundamental
desire of self…assertion； or the desire to be； may also be destroyed。
＇Note 7＇ Then the bubble of illusion will burst； and the freed
individual 〃Atman〃 will lose itself in the universal 〃Brahma。〃
Such seems to have been the pre…Buddhistic conception of salvation； and
of the way to be followed by those who would attain thereto。 No more
thorough mortification of the flesh has ever been attempted than…that
achieved by the Indian ascetic anchorite； no later monachism has so
nearly succeeded in reducing the human mind to that condition of
impassive quasi…somnambulism； which； but for its acknowledged
holiness； might run the risk of being confounded with idiocy。
And this salvation； it will be observed； was to be attained through
knowledge； and by action based on that knowledge； just as the
experimenter； who would obtain a certain physical or chemical result；
must have a knowledge of the natural laws involved and the persistent
disciplined will adequate to carry out all the various operations
required。 The supernatural； in our sense of the term； was entirely
excluded。 There was no external power which could affect the sequence
of cause and effect which gives rise to karma； none but the will of
the subject of the karma which could put an end to it。
Only one rule of conduct could be based upon the remarkable theory of
which I have endeavoured to give a reasoned outline。 It was folly to
continue ＇65＇ to exist when an overplus of pain was certain； and the
probabilities in favour of the increase of misery with the
prolongation of existence； were so overwhelming。 Slaying the body only
made matters worse； there was nothing for it but to slay the soul by
the voluntary arrest of all its activities。 Property； social ties；
family affections； common companionship； must be abandoned； the most
natural appetites； even that for food； must be suppressed； or at least
minimized； until all that remained of a man was the impassive；
extenuated； mendicant monk； self…hypnotised into cataleptic trances；
which the deluded mystic took for foretastes of the final union with
Brahma。
The founder of Buddhism accepted the chief postulates demanded by his
predecessors。 But he was not satisfied with the practical annihilation
involved in merging the individual existence in the unconditionedthe
Atman in Brahma。 It would seem that the admission of the existence of
any substance whatevereven of the tenuity of that which has neither
quality nor energy and of which no predicate whatever can be
assertedappeared to him to be a danger and a snare。 Though reduced
to a hypostatized negation； Brahma was not to be trusted； so long as
entity was there； it might conceivably resume the weary round of
evolution； with all its train of immeasurable miseries。 Gautama got
rid of even that ＇66＇ shade of a shadow of permanent existence by a
metaphysical tour de force of great interest to the student of
philosophy； seeing that it supplies the wanting half of Bishop
Berkeley's well…known idealistic argument。
Granting the premises； I am not aware of any escape from Berkeley's
conclusion； that the 〃substance〃 of matter is a metaphysical unknown
quantity； of the existence of which there is no proof。 What Berkeley
does not seem to have so clearly perceived is that the non…existence
of a substance of mind is equally arguable； and that the result of the
impartial applications of his reasonings is the reduction of the All
to coexistences and sequences of phenomena； beneath and beyond which
there is nothing cognoscible。 It is a remarkable indication of the
subtlety of Indian speculation that Gautama should have seen deeper
than the greatest of modern idealists； though it must be admitted
that； if some of Berkeley's reasonings respecting the nature of spirit
are pushed home； they reach pretty much the same conclusion。 ＇Note 8＇
Accepting the prevalent Brahminical doctrine that the whole cosmos；
celestial； terrestrial； and infernal； with its population of gods and
other celestial beings； of sentient animals； of Mara and his devils；
is incessantly shifting through recurring cycles of production and
destruction； in each of which every human being has his transmigratory
＇67＇ representative； Gautama proceeded to eliminate substance
altogether； and to reduce the cosmos to a mere flow of sensations；
emotions； volitions； and thoughts； devoid of any substratum。 As； on
the surface of a stream of water； we see ripples and whirlpools； which
last for a while and then vanish with the causes that gave rise to
them； so what seem individual existences are mere temporary
associations of phenomena circling round a centre； 〃like a dog tied to
a post。〃 In the whole universe there is nothing permanent； no eternal
substance either of mind or of matter。 Personality is a metaphysical
fancy； and in very truth； not only we； but all things； in the worlds
without end of the cosmic phantasmagoria； are such stuff as dreams are
made of。
What then becomes of karma？ Karma remains untouched。 As the peculiar
form of energy we call magnetism may be transmitted from a loadstone
to a piece of steel； from the steel to a piece of nickel； as it may be
strengthened or weakened by the conditions to which it is subjected
while resident in each piece； so it seems to have been conceived that
karma might be transmitted from one phenomenal association to another
by a sort of induction。 However this may be； Gautama doubtless had a
better guarantee for the abolition of transmigration； when no wrack of
substance； either of Atman or of Brahma； was left behind； when； in
short； a man had but to ＇68＇ dream that he willed not to dream； to put
an end to all dreaming。
This end of life's dream is Nirvana。 What Nirvana is the learned do
not agree。 But； since the best original authorities tell us there is
neither desire nor activity； nor any possibility of phenomenal
reappearance for the sage who has entered Nirvana； it may be safely
said of this acme of Buddhistic philosophy〃the rest is silence。〃
＇Note 9＇ Thus there is no very great practical disagreement between
Gautama and his predecessors with respect to the end of action； but it
is otherwise as regards the means to that end。 With just insight into
human nature； Gautama declared extreme ascetic practices to be useless
and indeed harmful。 The appetites and the passions are not to be
abolished by mere mortification of the body； they must； in addition；
be attacked on their own ground and conquered by steady cultivation of
the mental habits which oppose them； by universal benevolence； by the
return of good for evil； by humility； by abstinence from evil thought；
in short； by total renunciation of that self…assertion which is the
essence of the cosmic process。
Doubtless； it is to these ethical qualities that Buddhism owes its
marvellous success。＇Note 10＇ A system which knows no God in the
western sense； which denies a soul to man； which counts the belief in
immortality a blunder and the hope of it a sin； ＇69＇ which refuses any
efficacy to prayer and sacrifice； which bids men look to nothing but
their own efforts for salvation； which； in its original purity； knew
nothing of vows of obedience； abhorred intolerance； and never sought
the aid of the secular arm； yet spread over a considerable moiety of
the Old World with marvellous rapidity； and is still； with whatever
base admixture of foreign superstitions； the dominant creed of a large
fraction of mankind。
Let us now set our faces westwards； towards Asia Minor and Greece and
Italy； to view the rise and progress of another philosophy； apparently
independent； but no less pervaded by the conception of evolution。＇Note
11＇
The sages of Miletus were pronounced evolutionists； and； however dark
may be some of the sayings of Heracleitus of Ephesus； who was probably
a contemporary of Gautama； no better expressions of the essence of the
modern doctrine of evolution can be found than are presented by some
of his pithy aphorisms and striking metaphors。 ＇Note 12＇ Indeed； many
of my present auditors must have observed that； more than once； I have
borrowed from him in the brief exposition of the theory of evolution
with which this discourse commenced。
But when the focus of Greek intellectual activity shifted to Athens；
the leading minds ＇70＇ concentrated their attention upon ethical
problems。 Forsaking the study of the macrocosm for that of the
microcosm； they lost the key to the thought of the great Ephesian；
which； I imagine； is more intelligible to us than it was to Socrates；
or to Plato。 Socrates； more especially； set the fashion of a kind of
inverse agnosticism； by teaching that the problems of physics lie
beyond the reach of the human intellect； that the attempt to solve
them is essentially vain； that the one worthy object of investigation
is the problem of ethical life； and his example was followed by the
Cynics and the later Stoics。 Even the comprehensive knowledge and the
penetrating intellect of Aristotle failed to suggest to him that in
holding the eternity of the world； within it