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manifestations； that which we call pain or suffering。 This baleful
product of evolution increases in quantity and in intensity； with
advancing grades of animal organization； until it attains its highest
level in man。 Further； the consummation is not reached in man； the
mere animal； nor in man； the whole or half savage； but only in man；
the member of an organized polity。 And it is a necessary consequence
of his attempt to live in this way； that is； under those conditions
which are essential to the full development of his noblest powers。
Man； the animal； in fact； has worked his way to the headship of the
sentient world； and has become the superb animal which he is； in
virtue of his success in the struggle for existence。 The conditions
having been of a certain order； man's organization has adjusted itself
to them better than that of his competitors in the cosmic strife。 In
the case of mankind； the self…assertion； the unscrupulous seizing upon
all that can be grasped； the tenacious holding of all that can be
kept； which constitute the essence of the struggle for existence； have
answered。 For his successful progress； throughout the savage state；
man has been largely indebted to those qualities which he shares with
the ape and the tiger； his exceptional physical organization； his
cunning； his sociability； his curiosity； and his imitativeness； his
ruthless and ＇52＇ ferocious destructiveness when his anger is roused
by opposition。
But； in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social
organization； and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth；
these deeply ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects。
After the manner of successful persons； civilized man would gladly
kick down the ladder by which he has climbed。 He would be only too
pleased to see 〃the ape and tiger die。〃 But they decline to suit his
convenience； and the unwelcome intrusion of these boon companions of
his hot youth into the ranged existence of civil life adds pains and
griefs； innumerable and immeasurably great； to those which the cosmic
process necessarily brings on the mere animal。 In fact； civilized man
brands all these ape and tiger promptings with the name of sins； he
punishes many of the acts which flow from them as crimes； and； in
extreme cases； he does his best to put an end to the survival of the
fittest of former days by axe and rope。
I have said that civilized man has reached this point； the assertion
is perhaps too broad and general； I had better put it that ethical man
has attained thereto。 The science of ethics professes to furnish us
with a reasoned rule of life； to tell us what is right action and why
it is so。 Whatever differences of opinion may exist among experts
there is a general consensus that the ape and ＇53＇ tiger methods of
the struggle for existence are not reconcilable with sound ethical
principles。
The hero of our story descended the bean…stalk； and came back to the
common world； where fare and work were alike hard； where ugly
competitors were much commoner than beautiful princesses； and where
the everlasting battle with self was much less sure to be crowned with
victory than a turn…to with a giant。 We have done the like。 Thousands
upon thousands of our fellows； thousands of years ago； have preceded
us in finding themselves face to face with the same dread problem of
evil。 They also have seen that the cosmic process is evolution； that
it is full of wonder； full of beauty； and； at the same time； full of
pain。 They have sought to discover the bearing of these great facts on
ethics； to find out whether there is； or is not； a sanction for
morality in the ways of the cosmos。
Theories of the universe； in which the conception of evolution plays a
leading part； were extant at least six centuries before our era。
Certain knowledge of them； in the fifth century； reaches us from
localities as distant as the valley of the Ganges and the Asiatic
coasts of the Aegean。 To the early philosophers of Hindostan； no less
than to those of Ionia； the salient and characteristic feature of the
phenomenal world was its ＇54＇ changefulness； the unresting flow of all
things； through birth to visible being and thence to not being； in
which they could discern no sign of a beginning and for which they saw
no prospect of an ending。 It was no less plain to some of these
antique forerunners of modern philosophy that suffering is the badge
of all the tribe of sentient things； that it is no accidental
accompaniment； but an essential constituent of the cosmic process。 The
energetic Greek might find fierce joys in a world in which 〃strife is
father and king；〃 but the old Aryan spirit was subdued to quietism in
the Indian sage； the mist of suffering which spread over humanity hid
everything else from his view； to him life was one with suffering and
suffering with life。
In Hindostan； as in Ionia； a period of relatively high and tolerably
stable civilization had succeeded long ages of semi…barbarism and
struggle。 Out of wealth and security had come leisure and refinement；
and； close at their heels； had followed the malady of thought。 To the
struggle for bare existence； which never ends； though it may be
alleviated and partially disguised for a fortunate few； succeeded the
struggle to make existence intelligible and to bring the order of
things into harmony with the moral sense of man； which also never
ends； but； for the thinking few； becomes keen er with every increase
of knowledge and with every step towards the realization of a worthy
ideal of life。
＇55＇ Two thousand five hundred years ago； the value of civilization was
as apparent as it is now； then； as now； it was obvious that only in
the garden of an orderly polity can the finest fruits humanity is
capable of bearing be produced。 But it had also become evident that
the blessings of culture were not unmixed。 The garden was apt to turn
into a hothouse。 The stimulation of the senses； the pampering of the
emotions； endlessly multiplied the sources of pleasure。 The constant
widening of the intellectual field indefinitely extended the range of
that especially human faculty of looking before and after； which adds
to the fleeting present those old and new worlds of the past and the
future； wherein men dwell the more the higher their culture。 But that
very sharpening of the sense and that subtle refinement of emotion；
which brought such a wealth of pleasures； were fatally attended by a
proportional enlargement of the capacity for suffering； and the divine
faculty of imagination； while it created new heavens and new earths；
provided them with the corresponding hells of futile regret for the
past and morbid anxiety for the future。 ＇Note 3＇ Finally； the
inevitable penalty of over…stimulation； exhaustion； opened the gates
of civilization to its great enemy； ennui； the stale and flat
weariness when man delights…not； nor woman neither； when all things
are vanity and vexation； and life seems not worth living except to
escape the bore of dying。
＇56＇ Even purely intellectual progress brings about its revenges。
Problems settled in a rough and ready way by rude men； absorbed in
action； demand renewed attention and show themselves to be still
unread riddles when men have time to think。 The beneficent demon；
doubt； whose name is Legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old
faiths； enters into mankind and thenceforth refuses to be cast out。
Sacred customs； venerable dooms of ancestral wisdom； hallowed by
tradition and professing to hold good for all time； are put to the
question。 Cultured reflection asks for their credentials； judges them
by its own standards； finally； gathers those of which it approves into
ethical systems； in which the reasoning is rarely much more than a
decent pretext for the adoption of foregone conclusions。
One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the
conception of justice。 Society is impossible unless those who are
associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one
another； its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide
by that agreement； and； so far as they waver； that mutual trust which
is the bond of society is weakened or destroyed。 Wolves could not hunt
in packs except for the real； though unexpressed； understanding that
they should not attack one another during the chase。 The most
rudimentary polity is a pack of men living under the like tacit； or
expressed； ＇57＇ understanding； and having made the very important
advance upon wolf society； that they agree to use the force of the
whole body against individuals who violate it and in favour of those
who observe it。 This observance of a common understanding； with the
consequent distribution of punishments and rewards according to
accepted rules； received the name of justice； while the contrary was
called injustice。 Early ethics did not take much note of the animus of
the violator of the rules。 But civilization could not advance far；
without the establishment of a capital distinction between the case of
involuntary and that of wilful misdeed； between a merely wrong action
and a guilty one。 And； with increasing refinement of moral
appreciation； the problem