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XXIX； 117…138。
Three points of interest may be referred to in connection with
Babylonian medicine。 Our first recorded observations on anatomy are in
connection with the art of divination the study of the future by the
interpretation of certain signs。 The student recognized two divisions of
divination the involuntary； dealing with the interpretation of signs forced
upon our attention； such as the phenomena of the heavens； dreams； etc。；
and voluntary divination； the seeking of signs； more particularly through
the inspection of sacrificial animals。 This method reached an extraordinary
development among the Babylonians； and the cult spread to the Etruscans；
Hebrews； and later to the Greeks and Romans。
Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal the liver； from its
size； position and richness in blood； impressed the early observers as the
most important of the body。 Probably on account of the richness in blood it
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came to be regarded as the seat of lifeindeed； the seat of the soul。 From
this important position the liver was not dislodged for many centuries； and
in the Galenic physiology it shared with the heart and the brain in the
triple control of the natural； animal and vital spirits。 Many expressions in
literature indicate how persistent was this belief。 Among the Babylonians；
the word 〃liver〃 was used in hymns and other compositions precisely as
we use the word 〃heart；〃 and Jastrow gives a number of illustrations from
Hebrew； Greek and Latin sources illustrating this usage。
The belief arose that through the inspection of this important organ in
the sacrificial animal the course of future events could be predicted。 〃The
life or soul； as the seat of life； in the sacrificial animal is； therefore； the
divine element in the animal； and the god in accepting the animal； which is
involved in the act of bringing it as an offering to a god； identifies himself
with the animalbecomes； as it were； one with it。 The life in the animal is
a reflection of his own life； and since the fate of men rests with the gods； if
one can succeed in entering into the mind of a god； and thus ascertain
what he purposes to do； the key for the solution of the problem as to what
the future has in store will have been found。 The liver being the centre of
vitalitythe seat of the mind； therefore； as well as of the emotionsit
becomes in the case of the sacrificial animal； either directly identical with
the mind of the god who accepts the animal； or； at all events； a mirror in
which the god's mind is reflected； or； to use another figure； a watch
regulated to be in sympathetic and perfect accord with a second watch。 If；
therefore； one can read the liver of the sacrificial animal； one enters； as it
were； into the workshop of the divine will。〃＇15＇
＇15＇ Morris Jastrow： loc。 cit。； p。 122。
Hepatoscopy thus became； among the Babylonians； of extraordinary
complexity； and the organ of the sheep was studied and figured as early as
3000 B。C。 In the divination rites； the lobes； the gall…bladder； the
appendages of the upper lobe and the markings were all inspected with
unusual care。 The earliest known anatomical model； which is here shown；
is the clay model of a sheep's liver with the divination text dating from
about 2000 B。C。； from which Jastrow has worked out the modern
anatomical equivalents of the Babylonian terms。 To reach a decision on
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
any point； the phenomena of the inspection of the liver were carefully
recorded； and the interpretations rested on a more or less natural and
original association of ideas。 Thus； if the gall…bladder were swollen on the
right side； it pointed to an increase in the strength of the King's army； and
was favorable； if on the left side； it indicated rather success of the enemy；
and was unfavorable。 If the bile duct was long； it pointed to a long life。
Gallstones are not infrequently mentioned in the divination texts and
might be favorable； or unfavorable。 Various interpretations were gathered
by the scribes in the reference note…books which serve as guides for the
interpretation of the omens and for text…books of instructions in the temple
schools （Jastrow）。
The art of divination spread widely among the neighboring nations。
There are many references in the Bible to the practice。 The elders of Moab
and Midian came to Balaam 〃with the rewards of divination in their hand〃
（Numbers xxii； 7）。 Joseph's cup of divination was found in Benjamin's
sack （Genesis xliv； 5； 12）； and in Ezekiel （xxi； 21） the King of Babylon
stood at the parting of the way and looked in the liver。 Hepatoscopy was
also practiced by the Etruscans； and from them it passed to the Greeks and
the Romans； among whom it degenerated into a more or less meaningless
form。 But Jastrow states that in Babylonia and Assyria； where for several
thousand years the liver was consistently employed as the sole organ of
divination； there are no traces of the rite having fallen into decay； or
having been abused by the priests。
In Roman times； Philostratus gives an account of the trial of
Apollonius of Tyana；＇16＇ accused of human hepatoscopy by sacrificing a
boy in the practice of magic arts against the Emperor。 〃The liver； which
the experts say is the very tripod of their art； does not consist of pure blood；
for the heart retains all the uncontaminated blood； and irrigates the whole
body with it by the conduits of the arteries； whereas the gall； which is
situated next the liver； is stimulated by anger and depressed by fear into
the hollows of the liver。〃
We have seen how early and how widespread was the belief in amulets
and charms against the occult powers of darkness。 One that has persisted
with extraordinary tenacity is the belief in the Evil Eye the power of
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certain individuals to injure with a look。 Of general belief in the older
civilizations； and referred to in several places in the Bible； it passed to
Greece and Rome； and today is still held fervently in many parts of Europe。
The sign of 〃le corna；〃the first and fourth fingers extended； the others
turned down and the thumb closed over them；still used against the Evil
Eye in Italy； was a mystic sign used by the Romans in the festival of
Lemuralia。 And we meet with the belief also in this country。 A child with
hemiplegia； at the Infirmary for Diseases of the Nervous System；
Philadelphia； from the central part of Pennsylvania； was believed by its
parents to have had the Evil Eye cast upon it。
The second contribution of Babylonia and Assyria to medicine one
that affected mankind profoundlyrelates to the supposed influence of the
heavenly bodies upon man's welfare。 A belief that the stars in their courses
fought for or against him arose early in their civilizations； and directly out
of their studies on astrology and mathematics。 The Macrocosm； the
heavens that 〃declare the glory of God；〃 reflect； as in a mirror； the
Microcosm； the daily life of man on earth。 The first step was the
identification of the sun； moon and stars with the gods of the pantheon。
Assyrian astronomical observations show an extraordinary development of
practical knowledge。 The movements of the sun and moon and of the
planets were studied； the Assyrians knew the precession of the equinoxes
and many of the fundamental laws of astronomy； and the modern
nomenclature dates from their findings。 In their days the signs of the
zodiac corresponded practically with the twelve constellations whose
names they still bear； each division being represented by the symbol of
some god； as the Scorpion；