按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
discover that the blood moved；that was known to Aristotle and to Galen；
from both of whom I have given quotations which indicate clearly that
they knew of its movement；but at the time of Harvey not a single
anatomist had escaped from the domination of Galen's views。 Both
Servetus and Colombo knew of the pulmonary circulation； which was
described by the former in very accurate terms。 Cesalpinus； a great name
in anatomy and botany； for whom is claimed the discovery of the
circulation； only expressed the accepted doctrines in the following oft…
quoted phrase：
〃We will now consider how the attraction of aliment and the process of
nutrition takes place in plants； for in animals we see the aliment brought
through the veins to the heart； as to a laboratory of innate heat； and； after
receiving there its final perfection； distributed through the arteries to the
body at large； by the agency of the spirits produced from this same aliment
in the heart。〃＇30＇ There is nothing in this but Galen's view； and Cesalpinus
believed； as did all his contemporaries； that the blood was distributed
through the body by the vena cava and its branches for the nourishment of
all its parts。＇*＇ To those who have any doubts as to Harvey's position in
this matter I would recommend the reading of the 〃De Motu Cordis〃 itself；
then the various passages relating to the circulation from Aristotle to
Vesalius。 Many of these can be found in the admirable works of Dalton；
Flourens； Richet and Curtis。＇31＇ In my Harveian Oration for 1906＇32＇ I
have dealt specially with the reception of the new views； and have shown
how long it was before the reverence for Galen allowed of their
acceptance。 The University of Paris opposed the circulation of the blood
for more than half a century after the appearance of the 〃De Motu Cordis。〃
＇30＇ De Plantis； Lib I； cap。 2。
＇*＇ Cesalpinus has also a definite statement of the circlewise process。
Ed。
＇31＇ J。 C。 Dalton Doctrines of the Circulation； Philadelphia； 1884；
131
… Page 132…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Flourens Histoire de la decouverte de la circulation du sang； 2d ed。； Paris；
1857； Charles Richet Harvey； la circulation du sang； Paris； 1879； John G。
Curtis Harvey's views on the use of Circulation； etc。； New York； 1916。
＇32＇ Osler An Alabama Student and Other Biographical Essays；
Oxford； 1908； p。 295。
To summarizeuntil the seventeenth century there were believed to
be two closed systems in the circulation； （1） the natural； containing venous
blood； had its origin in the liver from which； as from a fountain； the blood
continually ebbed and flowed for the nourishment of the body； （2） the vital；
containing another blood and the spirits； ebbed and flowed from the heart；
distributing heat and life to all parts。 Like a bellows the lungs fanned and
cooled this vital blood。 Here and there we find glimmering conceptions of
a communication between these systems； but practically all teachers
believed that the only one of importance was through small pores in the
wall separating the two sides of the heart。 Observationmerely looking at
and thinking about thingshad done all that was possible； and further
progress had to await the introduction of a new method； viz。； experiment。
Galen； it is true； had used this means to show that the arteries of the body
contained blood and not air。 The day had come when men were no longer
content with accurate description and with finely spun theories and dreams。
It was reserved for the immortal Harvey to put into practice the
experimental method by which he demonstrated conclusively that the
blood moved in a circle。 The 〃De Motu Cordis〃 marks the final break of
the modern spirit with the old traditions。 It took long for men to realize the
value of this 〃inventum mirabile〃 used so effectively by the Alexandrians…
…by Galenindeed； its full value has only been appreciated within the past
century。 Let me quote a paragraph from my Harveian Oration。＇33＇ 〃To the
age of the hearer； in which men had heard and heard only； had succeeded
the age of the eye in which men had seen and had been content only to see。
But at last came the age of the hand the thinking； devising； planning
hand； the hand as an instrument of the mind； now re…introduced into the
world in a modest little monograph from which we may date the beginning
of experimental medicine。〃
＇33＇ Osler： An Alabama Student； etc。； pp。 329…330。
132
… Page 133…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Harvey caught the experimental spirit in Italy； with brain； eye and
hand as his only aids； but now an era opened in which medicine was to
derive an enormous impetus from the discovery of instruments of
precision。 〃The new period in the development of the natural sciences；
which reached its height in the work of such men as Galileo； Gilbert and
Kepler； is chiefly characterized by the invention of very important
instruments for aiding and intensifying the perceptions of the senses； by
means of which was gained a much deeper insight into the phenomena
than had hitherto been possible。 Such instruments as the earlier ages
possessed were little more than primitive hand…made tools。 Now we find a
considerable number of scientifically made instruments deliberately
planned for purposes of special research； and as it were； on the threshold
of the period stand two of the most important； the compound microscope
and the telescope。 The former was invented about 1590 and the latter
about 1608。〃＇34＇ It was a fellow professor of the great genius Galileo who
attempted to put into practice the experimental science of his friend。 With
Sanctorius began the studies of temperature； respiration and the physics of
the circulation。 The memory of this great investigator has not been helped
by the English edition of his 〃De Statica Medicina；〃 not his best work；
with a frontispiece showing the author in his dietetic balance。 Full justice
has been done to him by Dr。 Weir Mitchell in an address as president of
the Congress of Physicians and Surgeons； 1891。＇35＇ Sanctorius worked
with a pulsilogue devised for him by Galileo； with which he made
observations on the pulse。 He is said to have been the first to put in use the
clinical thermometer。 His experiments on insensible perspiration mark him
as one of the first modern physiologists。
＇34＇ Dannemann： Die Naturwissenschaften in ihrer Entwickelung。。。；
Vol。 II； p。 7； Leipzig； 1911。
＇35＇ See Transactions Congress Physicians and Surgeons； 1891； New
Haven； 1892； II； 159…181。
But neither Sanctorius nor Harvey had the immediate influence upon
their contemporaries which the novel and stimulating character of their
work justified。 Harvey's great contemporary； Bacon； although he lost his
life in making a cold storage experiment； did not really appreciate the
133
… Page 134…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
enormous importance of experimental science。 He looked very coldly
upon Harvey's work。 It was a philosopher of another kidney； Rene
Descartes； who did more than anyone else to help men to realize the value
of the better way which Harvey had pointed out。 That the beginning of
wisdom was in doubt； not in authority； was a novel doctrine in the world；
but Descartes was no armchair philosopher； and his strong advocacy and
practice of experimentation had a profound influence in directing men to
〃la nouvelle methode。〃 He brought the human body； the earthly machine；
as he calls it； into the sphere of mechanics and physics； and he wrote the
first text…book of physiology； 〃De l'Homme。〃 Locke； too； became the
spokesman of the new questioning spirit； and before the close of the
seventeenth century； experimental research became all the mode。 Richard
Lower； Hooke and Hales were probably more influence