按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
59
… Page 60…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
to the heart by the pulmonary vesselsone to the right； and one to the left
side。 These vessels in the lungs； 〃through mutual contact〃 with the
branches of the trachea； took in the pneuma。 A point of interest is that the
windpipe；or trachea； is called 〃arteria；〃 both by Aristotle and by
Hippocrates （〃Anatomy；〃 Littre； VIII； 539）。 It was the air…tube；
disseminating the breath through the lungs。 We shall see in a few minutes
how the term came to be applied to the arteries； as we know them。 The
pulsation of the heart and arteries was regarded by Aristotle as a sort of
ebullition in which the liquids were inflated by the vital or innate heat； the
fires of which were cooled by the pneuma taken in by the lungs and
carried to the heart by the pulmonary vessels。
＇29＇ De Generatione Animalium； Oxford translation； Bk。 II； Chap。 6；
Works V； 743 a。
In Vol。 IV of Gomperz' 〃Greek Thinkers；〃 you will find an admirable
discussion on Aristotle as an investigator of nature； and those of you who
wish to study his natural history works more closely may do so easilyin
the new translation which is in process of publication by the Clarendon
Press； Oxford。 At the end of the chapter 〃De Respiratione〃in the 〃Parva
Naturalia〃 （Oxford edition； 1908）； we have Aristotle's attitude towards
medicine expressed in a way worthy of a son of the profession：
〃But health and disease also claim the attention of the scientist； and
not merely of the physician； in so far as an account of their causes is
concerned。 The extent to which these two differ and investigate diverse
provinces must not escape us； since facts show that their inquiries are； at
least to a certain extent； conterminous。 For physicians of culture and
refinement make some mention of natural science；and claim to derive their
principles from it； while the most accomplished investigators into nature
generally push their studies so far as to conclude with an account of
medical principles。〃 （Works； III；480 b。）
Theophrastus； a student of Aristotle and his successor； created the
science of botany and made possible the pharmacologists of a few
centuries later。 Some of you doubtless know him in another guiseas the
author of the golden booklet on 〃Characters；〃 in which 〃the most eminent
botanist of antiquity observes the doings of men with the keen and
60
… Page 61…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
unerring vision of a natural historian〃 （Gomperz）。 In the Hippocratic
writings； there are mentioned 236 plants； in the botany of Theophrastus；
455。 To one trait of master and pupil I must referthe human feeling； not
alone of man for man； but a sympathy that even claims kinship with the
animal world。 〃The spirit with which he （Theophrastus） regarded the
animal world found no second expression till the present age〃 （Gomperz）。
Halliday； however；makes the statement that Porphyry＇30＇ goes as far as
any modern humanitarian in preaching our duty towards animals。
＇30＇ W。 R。 Halliday： Greek Divination； London； Macmillan & Co。；
1913。
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
FROM the death of Hippocrates about the year 375 B。C。 till the
founding of the Alexandrian School； the physicians were engrossed largely
in speculative views； and not much real progress was made； except in the
matter of elaborating the humoral pathology。 Only three or four men of the
first rank stand out in this period： Diocles the Carystian； 〃both in time and
reputation next and second to Hippocrates〃 （Pliny）； a keen anatomist and
an encyclopaedic writer； but only scanty fragments of his work remain。 In
some ways the most important member of this group was Praxagoras； a
native of Cos； about 340 B。C。 Aristotle； you remember； made no essential
distinction between arteries and veins； both of which he held to contain
blood： Praxagoras recognized that the pulsation was only in the arteries；
and maintained that only the veins contained blood； and the arteries air。 As
a rule the arteries are empty after death； and Praxagoras believed that they
were filled with an aeriform fluid； a sort of pneuma； which was
responsible for their pulsation。 The word arteria； which had already been
applied to the trachea； as an air…containing tube； was then attached to the
arteries； on account of the rough and uneven character of its walls the
trachea was then called the arteria tracheia； or the rough air…tube。＇31a＇ We
call it simply the trachea； but in French the word trachee…artere is still
used。
＇31a＇ Galen： De usu partium； VII； Chaps。 8…9。
Praxagoras was one of the first to make an exhaustive study of the
61
… Page 62…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
pulse； and he must have been a man of considerable clinical acumen；as
well as boldness； to recommend in obstruction of the bowels the opening
of the abdomen； removal of the obstructed portion and uniting the ends of
the intestine by sutures。
After the death of Alexander； Egypt fell into the hands of his famous
general； Ptolemy； under whose care the city became one of the most
important on the Mediterranean。 He founded and maintained a museum；
an establishment that corresponded very much to a modern university； for
the study of literature； science and the arts。 Under his successors；
particularly the third Ptolemy； the museum developed； more especially the
library； which contained more than half a million volumes。 The teachers
were drawn from all centres； and the names of the great Alexandrians are
among the most famous in the history of human knowledge； including
such men as Archimedes； Euclid； Strabo and Ptolemy。
In mechanics and physics； astronomy； mathematics and optics； the
work of the Alexandrians constitutes the basis of a large part of our
modern knowledge。 The school…boy of todayor at any rate of my day
studies the identical problems that were set by Euclid 300 B。C。； and the
student of physics still turns to Archimedes and Heron； and the astronomer
to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus。 To those of you who wish to get a brief
review of the state of science in the Alexandrian School I would
recommend the chapter in Vol。 I of Dannemann's history。＇31＇
＇31＇ Friedrich Dannemann： Grundriss einer Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften； Vol。 I； 3d ed。； Leipzig； 1908。
Of special interest to us in Alexandria is the growth of the first great
medical school of antiquity。 Could we have visited the famous museum
about 300 B。C。； we should have found a medical school in full operation；
with extensive laboratories； libraries and clinics。 Here for the first time the
study of the structure of the human body reached its full development； till
then barred everywhere by religious prejudice； but full permission was
given by the Ptolemies to perform human dissection and； if we may credit
some authors； even vivisection。 The original writings of the chief men of
this school have not been preserved； but there is a possibility that any day
a papyrus maybe found which will supplement the scrappy and imperfect
62
… Page 63…
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
knowledge afforded us by Pliny； Celsus and Galen。 The two most
distinguished names are Herophiluswho； Pliny says； has the honor of
being the first physician 〃who searched into the causes of disease〃 and
Erasistratus。
Herophilus； ille anatomicorum coryphaeus； as Vesalius calls him； was
a pupil of Praxagoras； and his name is still in everyday use by medical
students； attached to the torcular Herophili。 Anatomy practically dates
from these Alexandrines； who described the valves of